Sam’s Club and Costco

There are many positives that can be drawn from the way that Costco runs and controls its business. Costco’s motto is â€Å"To continuously provide our members with quality goods and services at the lowest possible prices† (Thompson, Strickland, Gamble, 2010). They have stuck to this mantra by providing affordable memberships to its customers, and affordable pricing of its merchandise. Costco’s strategy of low pricing and limited product line and selection made Costco successful by keeping their margins below their competitors; this is a positive in that it will draw more customers and more accounts for the growth and prosperity of the business. Costco’s limited product line and selection is also a positive because unlike it competitors, Costco offers efficiency in its sale process and makes it easier for the business to be managed. Sinegal stated that â€Å"If you have ten customers in to buy Advil, how many are not going to but any because you just have one size? Maybe one or two, we refer to that as the intelligent loss of sales† (Thompson, Strickland, Gamble, 2010). Another positive is Costco’s approach to treasure-hunt shopping. Costco tries to intrigue its customers by creating a sense of urgency with certain products that are high-end and that the company knows will sell-out quickly. Although these items a lot of times are higher priced, they still are reasonably lower than the average department store or its membership warehouse competitors. The only negative would be Costco’s marketing and advertising strategy. Although the stores reputation and low pricing have constituted in the franchises high level of success, their marketing strategy is lacking some key elements. Costco believes that direct mailings was the best possible marketing and advertising strategy but are missing out on the possibility of gaining a higher number of customers due to their lack of internet presence. The key factor that comes to mind is that Costco doesn’t offer a list of their store items online, which doesn’t give a consumer who isn’t familiar with the store a chance get the full spectrum of what they truly offer. Although Costco 3 Costco is a large franchise, in most cases; word of mouth simply won’t get a business the clientele they truly need to be successful or a leader in their respective arena. There were two strategic elements utilized by Costco that were insightful, the first being how Costco developed its personnel from within. The case of Jim Sinegal comes to light. When Sol Price made Jim Sinegal the manager of the original Price Club, he knew that Jim had a special knack for discount retailing and for spotting what a store was doing wrong (usually either not being in the right merchandise categories or not selling items at the right price points) very things that was good at and that were at the roots of Price’s Club growing success in the marketplace (Thompson, Strickland, Gamble, 2010). Sinegal applied this same concept when he partnered with Jeff Brotman, who was the elevated to vice chairman in 1993 and then to chairman in 1994. This strategic element is what made both Price Club and Costco very successful. The second strategic element that was insightful was the way in which Costco formulated its strategy on low prices and its limited product and selection. Costco’s view of the intelligent loss of sales, proved viable because they were willing to lose one or two customers to capture a higher number of clientele in the long run, and adhering to this strategy makes their business efficient and profitable. The formulation of strategy must take into consideration important external parties. For Costco, the competitor and their targeted customers were two constituencies. How was their strategy influenced by these parties? Did their strategy reflect adequate consideration of the needs of these two groups? Costco’s strategy was definitely influenced by its customers and its competitor. From a competitor’s standpoint Costco wanted to a provide services, prices, and products that rivaled its competitor Sam’s Club. Costco’s combining of high quality and low prices id the driving for behind Costco’s success. It is evident that Sam Walton, with Wal-Mart and Sam’s club played an integral part in the way the Costco has devised its strategy. Costco’s average pay, for example, is $17 an hour and is 42% higher than its fiercest rival Sam’s Club. Costco’s health plan also makes other retailers look Scroogish, Costco’s workers were only paying just 4 percent toward their health costs and raised it to only 8 percent when Sam’s Club and the retail average is at 25 percent (Bowmer, 2007). Costco isn’t simply looking to be better that the competition they want Costco 4 to be demonstrably better,† said John Matthews, Costco’s senior vice president for human resources (Bowmer, 2007). From the customer’s standpoint Costco looks to keep increasing its consumer base by providing low prices that aren’t coming at the workers’ expense, they believe this is the key to providing a good service and good business as a whole. Costco caters to the customer, by not becoming a casualty in the pricing war among retailers and wholesale club industries alike. A cardinal rule that has been implemented is that no item can be marked up by more than 14 percent and no private label item by more than 15 percent. In contract supermarkets generally mark up merchandise by 25 percent and department stores by 50 percent (Bowmer, 2007). Costco strives to be good merchants and offer the greatest value to the customer, Costco constantly strives to figure out how they are going lower their prices while their competition looks for ways to get to get more money for their items. Costco has a good understanding of its customers and knows that they don’t gain clientele by having fancy displays and mascots etc†¦ they know that the values they have attract and keep customers coming back, as well as attract new prospects. The company’s knack for adjusting and seeing things in a new way explains how Costco’s customers influence on the decisions and strategies set forth by the company. Costco’s strategy reflects adequate consideration of its customers and capitalizes on the needs that its competitors have. One can draw this conclusion because Costco has diagnosed what the customer needs, values and wants from a proprietor, and also have evaluated what the competition is lacking and perfected their mantra of providing low prices and quality products and services. They have formulated strong objectives that benefit their workers, customers and shareholders, and strategized a plan to be more successful than the competitor with a business model than can be considered overly generous in regards to its customers and workers in comparison to the competition.

My Favorite Hobby

Wind blowing into my face, my eyes where after few seconds the tears come out and I am speeding and crying but this are not the tears of sadness but the tears of joy. Stop. Here I am in the most beautiful place in the world, surrounded by mountains covered in snow. Sun is shining, even though it’s minus ten but I haven’t even noticed because I’m too happy. I have the feeling of being on top of the world and that there’s nothing that can stop me. It’s great to have a passion that makes you feel like this. I’m lucky to have one.During the time that most of people like to spend drinking warm tea and reading a novel, I’m cruising through snow, both my legs strapped to a wide plank of wood and fiberglass, practicing sport known as snowboarding. Writing this essay helped me to realize that I haven’t chosen this hobby by a coincidence. Both of the characteristics of this sport changed the world history. Events like the French revolutio n of 1789 or the uprising in the Jewish ghetto in Warsaw in 1943, would not have happened if people hadn’t had courage and belief in freedom.Courage. Many people who know me well say, that I have courage. I come from a family of entrepreneurs. I was raised in this spirit by my entrepreneurial parents who had big respect for hard work. I learned that hard work will always be rewarded. I helped in my family’s business, since I turned 14 and I learned the pros and cons of having your own business. Even though the disadvantages seemed big to me at that time, as an only child I knew that I would run the business one day. By the time I turned 18, I was fully at peace with this idea.It’s hard to imagine how big my shock was when one year later my father got a brain cancer and passed away and a year later our self-built family company. The shock was big and lasted long but I knew one thing – I had no plan and I needed one. I put myself together and made a new pla n – studying, developing myself, investing in what my father used to say â€Å"nobody will ever be able to take away from you† which is knowledge. Where I am today, doing what I do is the result of that experience and my patience, persistence and hard work. Freedom.During an exchange programme for students, we played a game in which each of us had to choose 3 words representing our values. Surprisingly I had no problem to choose the number one â€Å"freedom†. I found that amazing to discover, that freedom was more important to me than things like â€Å"family†, which was the number two, â€Å"love†, not to mention – â€Å"career† or â€Å"development†. Even today I know that only through â€Å"freedom† can I achieve all the other values that are important to me. It organizes my priorities and my moral system. It’s the freedom of my own choices and the freedom of always standing for what I believe in.Moreover, it i s also about honesty and respect to other people, which are my personal code of conduct. And when necessary it is the freedom to give up some of our freedom out of love and respect for others. Courage and all the notions of freedom described above are helping me to be successful in business. I am always a promoter of honesty and transparency in the workplace, as well a big supporter of the sustainable development agenda. What makes it different but not less exiting than my sport activities, is the fact that I don’t have to do it in minus ten degrees Celsius†¦

Part a is online discussion (hiring for fit ) and part b is case study Essay

Part a is online discussion (hiring for fit ) and part b is case study - Essay Example This current selection approach has been noted to be effective because it is targeted on specific behaviors that enhance diversity, which in turn increases person-organization fit. 2. The organization has already spent resources to plan and implement training for employees. It would be important to review the effect of the training on staff motivation. If the training has been effective, employees should exhibit improvement in their motivation. However, since there has been no improvement, the evaluation could fault the training. Thus, the second option would be to revise the current training so as to have an effective one. Intervention topics type of training would be appropriate for this case since the objective is to improve employee motivation and subsequently customer service. Making the training off-the-job would enhance concentration among the employees as noted by Fried and Fottler (250) thus increase the likelihood of meeting the intended objectives. Since it would be conducted in small groups so as not to interrupt normal operations, group discussions would be beneficial for idea

Network Operating Systems Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Network Operating Systems - Coursework Example New version i.e. USB 3.0 will take approximately 3.3 seconds to transfer 1 gigabyte of data (, Data Transfer Rates to Jump With USB 3.0 ). Moreover, transferring files on a network incorporates file transfer protocol, Microsoft windows sharing, P2P networks etc. In order to share a file, folder, optical drive or hard drive, configuration of FTP is required. This includes configuration of a network place. Steps that are involved in this process are: click ‘my network places’ ? ‘add a network place’? specify address by providing the path known as the ‘FTP site’ and click ‘next’?uncheck ‘log on anonymously’? click ‘OK’. After following these steps, FTP site will be created that will be available on the network for the users to transfer files. However, the transmission of files within the network will be conducted by FTP. FTP facilitates the users to share files in a simplest of methods along with configuring a n FTP site or server. FreeBSD also includes FTP server software named as ‘ftpd’, that is located in the base system. ‘ftdp’ enables the network administrator to configure FTP server in a simple way (, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) ).However, Linux uses ‘scp’ to share files on a remote location.

Relationships in Second Life and how they can affect Real Life Essay

Relationships in Second Life and how they can affect Real Life - Essay Example These immersive 3D environments, also known as Multi User Virtual Environments (MUVE) (Mennecke et al. 373) or Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs), allow large numbers of users from diverse backgrounds and locales to interact via the Internet (Ducheneaut, Wen, Yee, and Wadley 1151). However, for many inhabitants of Second Life, it is not just a 3D online game, but another world that â€Å"†¦has its own economy and millions of residents who own and create property, make friends and even get married† (CNN Living, 2008). These virtual worlds (VWs) have become conduits for socialization, collaboration, entertainment, social networking, and business development (Mennecke et al. 371). Second Life vs. Real Life In VWs like Second Life, users must build virtual representations of themselves through creation of customizable avatars, which gives them a 3D body that they control and provides a â€Å"tangible embodiment of their identity† (Ducheneaut, Wen, Yee, and Wadl ey 1151). Through the avatars, users can discover an ever-growing assortment of virtual sites, fabricate all sorts of items, from clothing to buildings, and create businesses to sell their goods or services, forge relationships with other players through their interactions with their avatars, and buy virtual property (Hayes 154). According to Dell, as many as 13 million people have logged on to Second Life at least one time and about 450,000 subscribers are from more than 50 countries are online in any given week, ranging in age from 18 – 72, 27% of which are female (Hayes 154). Researchers have begun to conduct studies to analyze the way self-perception formed through interactions in VWs affects behaviors in the real world (Dell). According to Ducheneaut, Wen, Yee, and Wadley, "the choices users make when creating and customizing their avatar will have repercussions on their interactions with other users† (1151), which can cause users to create online personas that are sometimes the complete opposite of who they are in real life. The ability to â€Å"†¦do, create or become just about anything you can imagine† (Hayes 154) in the VW can result in people adapting qualities that spill over and change their demeanor in the real world (Dell). This reaction frequently occurs without the person being aware of the shift and research has determined that as little as 90 seconds spent interacting with avatars online is sufficient to bring forth behavioral changes offline due to augmentation to the individual’s self-perception and self-confidence (Dell). Additionally, researchers have determined that physical characteristics, like height and appearance, can have significant effects on the online behavior of the person as well as how they interact with others offline (Dell). Studies conducted regarding behaviors determined that individuals that used avatars considered to be physically attractive tended to display a higher degree of self-assu rance than they normally did after inhabiting the avatar (Dell). This was also true for people that used tall avatars, with these individuals displaying behaviors more aggressive than their usual demeanor and the converse being true for people using short avatars (Dell). VWs can potentially be used to improve health for some adults by allowing them to watch avatars that closely resemble their own likeness exercise, which, in studies, resulted in the individuals also exercising within 24-hours of the interaction (Dell). More recently,

Assistive Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Assistive Technology - Essay Example The chemical's usual routes of entry in the body is through the eyes, inhalation and skin contact. It is not advisable for consumers and workers to apply flame or heat products containing the aforementioned chemicals; instead, pressurized extinguishers must be stored away from high heat sources, poorly ventilated rooms and out of direct sunlight. If based on the arguments presented by DuPont (2008; p 1), stating that the total flooding is applied in fire suppression when other people are present during the application; aside from the fact that the application is generally, free of residues, non-corrosive, non-electrically conductive and has ozone depleting potential, the action involves greater than 90% of all commercial security or protection scenarios. Meanwhile, the system of local application is also a total flooding system, but, there is no complete enclosures surrounding applied, fire extinguishing concentration should be applied into the area as quickly as possible; otherwise will expose people to hazards longer. Therefore, local application seems more of a personnel hazard than total flooding.

Introduction to Law Coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction to Law Coursework - Essay Example nt that must be fulfilled for a contract to be valid, we will discuss the law of contract in detail and then compare and contrast between an offer and an invitation to treat. For a contract to be enforceable contract, certain basic requirements must be presented. There must an agreement based upon genuine consent of the parties, supported by a consideration and made for a lawful object between competent parties. This paper will start by discussing what an offer is and later on compare and contrast between an offer and an invitation to treat. (Hussein, 1993) a) An offer may be made to a specific person or to any member of a group or to the world at large, but it cannot form the basis of a contract until it has been accepted by an ascertained person or group of persons. For example if A makes an offer to B, it is a specific offer and B is the only person who can accept it. But in many cases, it is immaterial to whom the offer is made. Offers made by advertisement are the commonest form of offers made to the world at large, and can be accepted by anyone just by acting on them. For example in the following case studied. The defendants offered a reward of  £100 to anyone who contracted influenza after using their smoke ball for a fortnight. The plaintiff, relying on the advertisement, bought the smoke ball and used it as prescribed, but still contracted influenza. She sued for the advertised reward. It was held that the advertisement was a true offer, and not a mere advertising puff, and the defendants were held liable to pay the reward. b) An offer may be made by a word of mouth, in writing or by conduct. The person making this offer is called the offeror, and the person to whom the offer is made is called the offeree. For example an offer made by conduct may be of a bus playing on a certain route. This is usually an offer by the owner of the bus to carry passengers at the published fare for various stages. The offer is accepted by conduct when the passenger

Write a paper on ONE of the following topics Essay

Write a paper on ONE of the following topics - Essay Example They even viewed the body as a prison house of the entity which they called the soul. During the Middle Ages, however, such thinking was challenged and was slowly replaced by the belief on psychosomatic unity. Following St. Thomas Aquinas’ metaphysics, man is a unified composite substance of two essential principles: form and matter. His teaching introduced concept of the unity of human nature as constituted by form and matter—soul and body. In this regard, the mind and body problem pertains to the nature of the dynamics between the two substances. Can a non-material substance truly affect a material substance, if so, in what manner and up to what extent? With this, it is my task to present how four philosophers have attempted to provide answers to this boggling question. In this regard, I will critically examine Descarte’s Interactionism, Malebranche’s Occasionalism, Spinoza’s Double Aspect Theory, and Leibniz’ Pre-Established Harmony. Having done so, I will then dedicate my discussion on evaluating the logical soundness of each viewpoint on the mind-and-body problem in order to arrive at a conclusion on which philosopher presented the strongest arguments. Interactionism begins with the basic assumption that the non-material substance of man (soul) can interact with the material substance (body). As Descartes further explained, although the sense perceptions and the physical passions of humans are dependent on the body, the awareness and understanding of them lies on the mind. Thus, there is indeed an interaction between the mind and the body, and the point of interaction happens in the pineal gland. Because the body is an extended matter and the mind is an un-extended spirit, there ought to be a physical venue to allow for their interaction. But as Descartes claimed, the soul is united to all parts of the body conjointly. Thus, the body provides proper housing to the soul. When a member of

Church Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Church Growth - Essay Example It not only tells about the principles but also tells us that why we want to grow It tells us about the core motivations behind church growth. It tells us about the relationship between leadership and church growth. It gives description about larger and smaller churches. Chapters seventeen, eighteen and nineteen speak about the basic principles of the Church Growth movement. This movement is based upon the use of sociological devices in order to attract new converts. The next idea that the author tells the reader in chapter twenty is that of laity and ministry. This section states that for both pastors and the other laity there are different things that must take place, which are not always pleasing and difficult to do. One of the most thrilling principles of church growth is to set free laity to do the work of ministry1. Chapters twenty one till twenty six chronicle the various strategies that have been used by the Church Growth movement in order to improve its clout and influence. Numerical strength will always help Christianity while every effort should be conducted in order to capture the heart of potential converts. The remaining chapters focus on the organization, planning, and preparation of the Church Growth movement. Church planting is the next idea of this book.

Audio Lingual Method Essay Example for Free

Audio Lingual Method Essay Compare and contrast the Direct Method and the Audio-Lingual Method. (1) Both are oral-based approaches. (2) The Direct Method emphasizes vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations; the Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. (3) Unlike the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology. 2- How has the behavioral psychology influenced the Audio-Lingual Method? It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was through conditioning—helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement. (2) Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form the new habits required to be target language speakers. 3- Define a backward build-up drill (expansion drill). State its purpose and advantages. (1) Definition: The teacher breaks down a line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then, following the teachers cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins with the part at the end of the sentence (and works backward from there) to keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This also directs more student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically occurs. (2) Purpose: The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesome sentence into smaller parts. (3) Advantages: (a) The teacher is able to give the students help in producing the troublesome line. Having worked on the line in small pieces, the students are also able to take note of where each word or phrase begins and ends in the sentence. 4- Define a repetition drill. Students are asked to listen carefully to the teachers model, and then they have to repeat and attempt to mimic the model as accurately and as quickly as possible. 5- Define a chain drill. State its advantages. (1) Definition: The chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, oneby- one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, and then turns to the student sitting next to him. (2) Advantages: (A) A chain drill gives students an opportunity to say the lines individually. (B) The teacher listens and can tell which students are struggling and will need more practice. (C) A chain drill also lets students use the expressions in communication with someone else, even though the communication is very limited. 6- Define a single-slot substitution drill. State its purpose. (1) Definition: The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase—called the cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. (2) Purpose: The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence. 7- Define a multiple-slot substitution drill. State its purpose. This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog line. The students must recognize what part of speech each cue is, or at least, where it fits into the sentence, and make any other changes, such as subject-verb agreement. They then say the line, fitting the cue phrase into the line where it belongs. 8- Define transformation drill. Students are asked to change one type of sentence into another—an affirmative sentence into a negative or an active sentence into a passive.

Effect of Early Numeracy Learning on Numerical Reasoning

Effect of Early Numeracy Learning on Numerical Reasoning FROM NUMERICAL MAGNITUDE TO FRACTIONS Early understanding of numerical magnitude and proportion is directly related to subsequent acquisition of fraction knowledge Abstract Evidence from experiments with infants concerning their ability to reason with numerical magnitude is examined, along with the debate relating to the innateness of numerical reasoning ability. The key debate here concerns performance in looking time experiments, the appropriateness of which is examined. Subsequently, evidence concerning how children progress to reasoning with proportions is examined. The key focus of the debate here relates to discrete vs continuous proportions and the difficulties children come to have when reasoning with discrete proportions specifically. Finally, the evidence is reviewed into how children come to reason with fractions and, explicitly, the difficulties experienced and why this is the case. This is examined in the context of different theories of mathematical development, together with the effect of teaching methods. Early understanding of numerical magnitude and proportion is directly related to subsequent acquisition of fraction knowledge Understanding of magnitude and fractions is crucial in contemporary society. Relatively simple tasks such as dividing a restaurant bill or sharing cake at a birthday party rely on an understanding of these concepts in order to determine how much everyone requires to pay towards the bill or how much cake everyone can receive. Understanding of these concepts is also required to allow calculation of more complex mathematical problems, such as solving equations in statistical formulae. It is therefore evident that a sound understanding of magnitude and fractions is required in everyday life and whilst most adults take for granted the ability to calculate magnitudes and fractions, this is not so for children, who require education to allow the concepts to be embedded into their understanding. De Smedt, Verschaffel, and Ghesquià ¨re (2009) suggest that children’s performance on magnitude comparison tasks predicts later mathematical achievement, with Booth and Siegler (2008) further arguing for a causal link between early understanding of magnitude and mathematical achievement. Despite these findings, research tends to highlight problems when the teaching of whole number mathematics progresses to teaching fractions. Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, and Geary (2012) suggest that performance on fraction tasks is indicative of overall mathematics performance levels, although overall mathematical ability does not predict ability on these tasks. This article reviews the current position of research into how young children, between birth and approximately seven years of age come to understand magnitude and how this relates to the subsequent learning of fractions. By primarily reviewing research into interpretation of numerical magnitude, the first section of this paper will have a fairly narrow focus. This restriction is necessary due to the large volume of literature on the topic of infant interpretation of magnitude generally and is also felt to be appropriate due to the close link between integers, proportions and fractions. An understanding of magnitude is essential to differentiate proportions (Jacob, Vallentin, Nieder, 2012) and following the review of literature in respect of how magnitude comes to be understood, the paper will review the present situation in respect of how young children understand proportions. Finally, the article will conclude with a review of where the literature is currently placed in respect of how young children’s understanding of magnitude and proportion relates to the learning of fractions and briefly how this fits within an overall mathematical framework. Is the understanding of numerical magnitude innate? There are two opposing views in respect of the innateness of human understanding of number and magnitude. One such view suggests that infants are born with an innate ability to carry out basic numerical operations such as addition and subtraction (Wynn, 1992, 1995, 2002). In her seminal and widely cited study, Wynn (1992) used a looking time procedure to measure the reactions of young infants to both possible and impossible arithmetical outcomes over three experiments. Infants were placed in front of a screen with either one or two objects displayed. A barrier was then placed over the screen, restricting the infants’ view, following which an experimenter either â€Å"added† or â€Å"removed† an item. The infants were able to see the mathematical operation taking place due to a small gap at the edge of the screen which showed items being added or subtracted, but were not able to view the final display until the barrier was removed. Following the manipulation and r emoval of the barrier, infants’ looking times were measured and it was established that overall infants spent significantly more time looking at the impossible outcome than the correct outcome. These results were assumed to be indicative of an innate ability in human infants to manipulate arithmetical operations and, accordingly, distinguish between different magnitudes. The suggestion of an innate human ability to manipulate arithmetical operations is given further credence by a number of different forms of replication of Wynn’s (1992) original study (Koechlin, Dehaene, Mehler, 1997; Simon, Hespos, Rochat, 1995). Feigneson, Carey, and Spelke (2002) and Uller, Carey, Huntley-Fenner, and Klatt (1999) also replicated Wynn, although interpreted the results as being based on infant preference for object-based attention as opposed to an integer-based attention. Despite replications of Wynn (1992), a number of studies have also failed to replicate the results, leading to an alternative hypothesis. Following a failure to replicate Wynn, Cohen and Marks (2002) posit that infants distinguish magnitude by favouring more objects over less and also display a preference towards the number of objects which they have initially been presented, regardless of the mathematical operation carried out by the experimenter. This suggestion arises from the results of an experiment where Wynn’s hypothesis of innate mathematical ability was tested against the preference hypothesis noted above. Further evidence against Wynn (1992) exists following an experiment by Wakeley, Rivera, and Langer (2000), who argue that no systematic evidence of addition and subtraction exists, instead the ability to add and subtract progressively develops during infancy and childhood. Whilst this does not specifically support Cohen and Marks, it does cast doubt on basic arithme tical skills and, accordingly, the ability to work with magnitude existing innately. How do children understand magnitude as they age? By six-months old, it is suggested that infants employ an approximate magnitude estimation system (McCrink Wynn, 2007). Using a looking-time experiment to assess infant attention to displays of pac-men and dots on screen, infants appeared to attend to novel displays with a large difference in ratio (2:1 to 4:1 pac-men to dots, 4:1 to 2:1 pac-men to dots), with no significant difference in attention times to novel stimuli with a closer ratio (2:1 to 3:1 pac-men to dots, 3:1 to 2:1pac-men to dots). These results were interpreted to exemplify an understanding of magnitudes with a degree of error, a pattern already existing in the literature on adult magnitude studies (McCrink Wynn, 2007). Unfortunately, one issue in respect of interpreting the results of experiments with infants is that they cannot explicitly inform experimenters of their understanding of what has happened. It has been argued that experiments making use of the looking-time paradigm cannot be properly understood as exp erimenters must make an assumption that infants will have the same expectations as adults, a matter which cannot be appropriately verified (Charles Rivera, 2009; K. Mix, 2002). As children come to utilise language, words which have a direct relationship to magnitude (eg., â€Å"little,† â€Å"more,† â€Å"lots†) enter into their vocabulary. The use of these words allows researchers to investigate how they come to form internal representations of magnitude and how they are used to explicitly reveal understanding of such magnitudes. Specifically isolating the word â€Å"more†, children appear to develop an understanding of the word as being comparatively domain neutral (Odic, Pietroski, Hunter, Lidz, Halberda, 2013). In an experiment requesting children aged 2.0 – 4.0 (mean age = 3.2) to distinguish which colour on pictures of a set of dots (numeric task) or blobs of â€Å"goo† (non-numeric task) represented â€Å"more†, it was established that no significant difference exists between performance on both numeric and non-numeric tasks. In addition, it was found that children age approximately 3.3 years and above performed significantly above chance, whereas those children below 3.3 years who participated did not. This supports the assertion that the word â€Å"more† is understood by young children as both comparative and in domain neutral terms not specifically related to number or area. It could also be suggested that it is around the age of 3.3 years when the word â€Å"more † comes to hold some sort of semantic understanding in relation to mathematically based stimuli (Odic et al., 2013). It is difficult to compare this study to that of McCrink and Wynn (2007) due to the differing nature of methodology. It would certainly be of interest to researchers to investigate the possibility of some sort of comparison research, however, as it is unclear how the Odic et al. (2013) study fits with the suggestion of an approximate magnitude estimation system, notwithstanding the use of language. Generally, children understand numerical magnitude on a logarithmic basis at an early age, progressing to a more linear understanding of magnitude as they age (Opfer Siegler, 2012), a change which is beneficial. It is suggested that the more linear a child’s mental representation of magnitude appears, the better their memory for magnitudes will be (Thompson Siegler, 2010). There are a number of reasons for this change in understanding, such as socioeconomic status, culture and education (Laski Siegler, in press). In the remainder of this section, the understanding of magnitude in school age children (up to approximately seven years old) is reviewed, although only the effect of education will be referred to. The remainder of the reasons are noted in order to exemplify some issues which can also have an impact on children’s development of numerical magnitude understanding. As children age, the neurological and mental representations of magnitude encompass both numeric and non-numeric stimuli in a linear fashion (Opfer Siegler, 2012). On this basis, number line representations present a reasonable method for investigation of children’s’ understanding of magnitude generally. One method for examining number line representations of magnitude in children uses board games in which children are required to count moves as they play. Both prior to and subsequent to playing the games, the children involved in the experiment are then presented with a straight line, the parameters of which are explained, and requested to mark on the line where a set number should be placed. This allows researchers to establish if the action of game playing has allowed numerical and/or magnitude information to be encoded. In an experiment of this nature with pre-school children (mean age 4 years 8 months), Siegler and Ramani (2009) established that the use of a linea r numerical board game (10 spaces) enhanced children’s understanding of magnitude when compared to the use of a circular board game. It is argued that the use of a linear board game assists with the formation of a retrieval structure, allowing participants to encode, store and retrieve magnitude information for future use. Similar results have subsequently been obtained by Laski and Siegler (in press), working with slightly older participants (mean age 5 years 8 months), who sought to establish the effect of a larger board (100 spaces). In this case, the structure of the board ruled out high performance based on participant memory of space location on the board. In addition, verbalising movements by counting on was found to have a significant impact on retention of magnitude information. A final key question relating to understanding of magnitude relates to the predictive value of current understanding on future learning. When education level was controlled for, Booth and Siegler (2008) found a significant correlation between the pre-test numerical magnitude score on a number line task and post-test scores of 7 year-olds on both number line tasks and arithmetic problems, This discovery has been supported by a replication by De Smedt et al, (2009) and these findings together suggest that an understanding of magnitude is fundamental in predicting future mathematical ability. It is also clear that a good understanding of magnitude will assist children in subsequent years when the curriculum proceeds to deal more comprehensively with matters such as proportionality and fractions. From numerical magnitudes to proportions Evidence reviewed previously in this article tends to suggest that children have the ability to distinguish numerical magnitudes competently by the approximate age of 7 years old. Unfortunately, the ability to distinguish between magnitudes does not necessarily suggest that they are easily reasoned with by children. Inhelder and Piaget (1958) first suggested that children were unable to reason with proportions generally until the transition to the formal operational stage of development, at around 11-12 years of age. This point is elucidated more generally with the argument that most proportional reasoning tasks prove difficult for children, regardless of age (Spinillo Bryant, 1991). However, more recent research has suggested that this assertion does not strictly hold true, with children as young as 4 and 5 years old able to reason proportionally (Sophian, 2000). Recent evidence suggests that the key debate in terms of children’s ability to reason with proportions concerns t he distinction between discrete quantities and continuous quantities. Specifically, it is argued that children find dealing with problems involving continuous proportions simpler than those involving discrete proportions (Boyer, Levine, Huttenlocher, 2008; Jeong, Levine, Huttenlocher, 2007; Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001; Spinillo Bryant, 1999). In addition, the â€Å"half† boundary is also viewed as being of critical importance in children’s proportional reasoning and understanding (Spinillo Bryant, 1991, 1999). These matters and suggested reasons for the experimental results are now discussed. Proposing that first order relations are important in children’s understanding of proportions, Spinillo and Bryant (1991) suggest that children should be successful in making judgements on proportionality using the relation â€Å"greater than†. In addition, it is suggested that the â€Å"half† boundary also has an important role in proportional decisions. Following an experiment which requested children make proportional judgements about stimuli which either crossed or did not cross the â€Å"half† boundary, it was found that children aged from approximately 6 years were able to reason relatively easily concerning proportions which crossed the â€Å"half† boundary. From these results, it was drawn that children tend to establish part-part first order relations to deal with proportion tasks (eg. reasoning that one box contains â€Å"more blue than white† bricks). It was also suggested that the use of the â€Å"half† boundary formed a fi rst reference to children’s understanding of part-whole relations (eg. reasoning that a box contained â€Å"half blue, half white† bricks). No express deviation from continuous proportions was used in this experiment and, therefore, the only matter which can be drawn from this result is that children as young as 6 years old can reason about continuous proportions. In a follow up experiment, Spinillo and Bryant (1999) again utilised their â€Å"half† boundary paradigm with the addition of continuous and discrete proportion conditions. Materials used in the experiment were of an isomorphic nature. The results broadly mirrored Spinillo and Bryant’s (1991) initial study, in which it was noted that the â€Å"half† boundary was important in solving of proportional problems. This also held for discrete proportions in the experiment despite performance on these tasks scoring poorly overall. Children could, however, establish that half of a continuous quantity is identical to half of a discrete quantity, supporting the idea that the â€Å"half† boundary is crucial to reasoning about proportions (Spinillo Bryant, 1991, 1999). Due to the similar nature of materials used in this experiment, a further research question was posited in order to establish whether a similar task with non-isomorphic constituents would have any impac t on the ability of participants to reason with continuous proportions (Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001). Using models of pizza and chocolates for the continuous and discrete conditions respectively, participants carried out a matching task where they were required to match the ratio in the experimenters’ model with their own in either an isomorphic (pizza to pizza) or non-isomorphic (chocolate to pizza) condition. In similar results to the previous experiments, it was found that participants had less problems dealing with continuous proportions than discrete proportions. In addition, performance was superior in the isomorphic condition compared to the non-isomorphic condition. An interesting finding, however, is that problems involving â€Å"half† were successfully resolved, irrespective of condition, further adding credence to the importance of this feature. Due to participants in this experiment being slightly younger than those in Spinillo and Bryant’s (1991, 1999) experiments, it is argued that the â€Å"half† boundary may be used for proportional reasoning tasks at a very early age (Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001). In addition to the previously reviewed literature, there is a vast body of evidence the difficulty of discrete proportional reasoning compared to continuous proportional reasoning in young children. Yet to be identified, however, is a firm reason as to why this is the case. Two specific suggestions as to why discrete reasoning appears more difficult than continuous reasoning are now discussed. The first suggestion is based on a theory posited by Modestou and Gagatsis (2007) related to the improper use of contextual knowledge. An error occurs when certain knowledge, applicable to a certain context, is used in a setting to which it is not applicable. A particular problem identified with this form of reasoning is that it is difficult to correct (Modestou Gagatsis, 2007). This theory is applied to proportional reasoning by Boyer et al, (2008), who suggest that the reason children find it difficult to reason with discrete proportions is because they use absolute numerical equivalence to explain proportional problems. Continuous proportion problems are presumably easier due to the participants using a proportional schema to solve the problem, whereas discrete proportions are answered using a numerical equivalence schema where it is not applicable. An altogether different suggestion for the issue is made by Jeong et al, (2007), invoking Fuzzy trace theory (Brainerd Reyna, 1990; Reyna Brainerd, 1993). The argument posited is that children focus more on the number of target partitions in the discrete task, whilst ignoring the area that the target partitions cover. It is the area that is of most relevance to the proportion task and, therefore, focussing on area would be the correct outcome. Instead, children appear to instinctively focus on the number of partitions, whilst ignoring their relevance (Jeong et al., 2007), thereby performing poorly on the task. From proportions to fractions In tandem with children’s difficulties in relation to discrete proportions, there is a wealth of evidence supporting the notion that fractions prove difficult at all levels of education (Gabriel et al., 2013; Siegler, Fazio, Bailey, Zhou, 2013; Siegler, Thompson, Schneider, 2011). Several theories of mathematical development exist, although only some propose suggestions as to why this may be the case. The three main bodies of theory in respect of mathematical development are privileged domain theories (eg. Wynn, 1995b), conceptual change theories (eg. Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010) and integrated theories (eg, Siegler, Thompson, Schneider, 2011). In addition to the representation of fractions within established mathematical theory, a further dichotomy exists in respect to how fractions are taught in schools. It is argued that the majority of teaching of fractions is carried out via a largely procedural method, meaning that children are taught how to manipulate fractions with out being fully aware of the conceptual rules by which they operate (Gabriel et al., 2012). Discussion in this section of the paper will focus on how fractions are interpreted within these theories, the similarities and differences therein, together with how teaching methods can contribute to better overall understanding of fractions. Within privileged domain theories, development of understanding of fractions is viewed as secondary to and inherently distinct from the development of whole numbers (Leslie, Gelman, Gallistel, 2008; Siegler et al., 2011; Wynn, 1995b). As previously examined, it is argued that humans have an innate system of numerical understanding which specifically relates to positive integers, he basis of privileged domain theory being that positive integers are â€Å"psychologically privileged numerical entities† (Siegler et al., 2011, p. 274). Wynn (1995b) suggests that difficulty exists with learning fractions due to the fact that children struggle to conceive of them as discrete numerical entities. This argument is similar to that of Gelman and Williams (1998, as cited in Siegler et al., 2011) who suggest that the knowledge of integers presents barriers to learning about other types of number, due to distinctly different properties (eg. assumption of unique succession). Presumably, priv ileged domain theory views the fact that integers are viewed as being distinct in nature from any other type of numerical entity is the very reason for children having difficulty in learning fractions, as their main basis of numerical understanding prior to encountering fractions is integers. Whilst similar to privileged domain theories in some respects, conceptual change theories are also distinct. The basis of conceptual change theories is that concepts and relationships between concepts are not static, but change over time (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). In essence, protagonists of conceptual change do not necessarily dismiss the ideas of privileged domain theories, but allow freedom for concepts (eg. integers) and relationships between concepts (eg. assumption of unique succession) to be altered in order to accommodate new information, albeit that such accommodation can take a substantial period of time to occur (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). Support for conceptual change theory is found in the failure of children to comprehend the infinite number of fractions or decimals between two integers (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). It is argued that the reason for this relates to the previously manifested knowledge of integer relations (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010) and that it is closely related to a concept designated as the â€Å"whole number bias† (Ni Zhou, 2005). The â€Å"whole number bias† can be defined as a tendency to utilise schema specifically for reasoning with integers to reason with fractions (Ni Zhou, 2005) and has been referred to in a number of studies as a possible cause of problems for children’s reasoning with fractions (eg. Gabriel et al., 2013; Meert, Grà ©goire, Noà «l, 2010). Siegler et al, (2011) propose an integrated theory to account for the development of numerical reasoning generally. It is suggested by this theory that the development of understanding of both fractions and whole numbers occurs in tandem with the development of procedural understanding in relation to these concepts. The theory claims that â€Å"numerical development involves coming to understand that all real numbers have magnitudes that can be ordered and assigned specific locations on number lines† (Siegler et al., 2011, p. 274). This understanding is said to occur gradually by means of a progression from an understanding of characteristic elements (eg. an understanding that whole numbers hold specific properties distinct from other types of number) to distinguishing between essential features (eg. different properties of all numbers, specifically their magnitudes) (Siegler et al., 2011). In contrast to the foregoing privileged domain and conceptual change theories, the inte grated theory views acquisition of knowledge concerning fractions as a fundamental course of numerical development (Siegler et al., 2011). Supporting evidence for this theory comes from Mix, Levine and Huttenlocher (1999), who report an experiment where children successfully completed fraction reasoning tasks in tandem with whole number reasoning tasks. A high correlation between performances on both tasks is reported and it is suggested that this supports the existence of a shared latent ability (Mix et al., 1999). One matter which appears continuously in fraction studies is the pedagogical method of delivering fraction education. A number of researchers have argued that teaching methods can have a significant impact on the ability of pupils to acquire knowledge about fractions (Chan, Leu, Chen, 2007; Gabriel et al., 2012). It is argued that the teaching of fractions falls into two distinct categories, teaching of conceptual knowledge and teaching of procedural knowledge (Chan et al., 2007; Gabriel et al., 2012). In an intervention study, Gabriel et al, (2012) segregated children into two distinct groups, the experimental group receiving extra tuition in relation to conceptual knowledge of fractions, with the control group following the regular curriculum. The experimental results suggested that improved conceptual knowledge of fractions (eg. equivalence) allowed children to perform better when presented with fraction problems (Gabriel et al., 2012). This outcome supports the view that more ef fort should be made to teach conceptual knowledge about fractions, prior to educating children about procedural matters and performance on fractional reasoning may be improved. Conclusion and suggestions for future research In this review, the process of how children come to understand and reason with numerical magnitude, progressing to proportion and finally fractions has been examined. The debate concerning the innateness of numerical reasoning has been discussed, together with how children understand magnitude at a young age. It has been established that children as young as six months old appear to have a preference to impossible numerical outcomes, although it remains unclear as to why this is. The debate remains ongoing as to whether infants are reasoning mathematically, or simply have a preference for novel situations. Turning to proportional reasoning, evidence suggests a clear issue when children are reasoning with discrete proportions as opposed to continuous ones. Finally, evidence concerning how children reason with fractions and the problems therein was examined in the context of three theories of mathematical development. Evidence shows that all of the theories can be supported to some ext ent. A brief section was devoted to how teaching practice effects children’s learning of fractions and it was established that problems exist in terms of how fractions are taught, with too much emphasis placed on procedure and not enough placed on conceptual learning. With the foregoing in mind, the following research questions are suggested to be a good starting point for future experiments: How early should we implement teaching of fraction concepts? Evidence from Mix et al, (1999) suggests that children as young as 5 years old can reason with fractions and it may be beneficial to children’s education to teach them earlier; Should fractions be taught with more emphasis on conceptual knowledge? References Bailey, D. H., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., Geary, D. C. (2012). Competence with fractions predicts gains in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 447–455. Booth, J., Siegler, R. (2008). Numerical magnitude representations influence arithmetic learning. Child Development, 79, 1016–1031. Boyer, T. W., Levine, S. C., Huttenlocher, J. (2008). Development of proportional reasoning: where young children go wrong. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1478–1490. Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F. (1990). Inclusion illusion: Fuzzy-trace theory and perceptual salience effects in cognitive development. Developmental Review, 10, 363–403. Chan, W., Leu, Y., Chen, C. (2007). Exploring Group-Wise Conceptual Deficiencies of Fractions for Fifth and Sixth Graders in Taiwan. The Journal of Experimental Education, 76, 26–57. Charles, E. P., Rivera, S. M. (2009). Object permanence and method of disappearance: looking measures further contradict reaching measures. Developmental Science, 12, 991–1006. Cohen, L. B., Marks, K. S. (2002). How infants process addition and subtraction events. Developmental Science, 5, 186–201. De Smedt, B., Verschaffel, L., Ghesquià ¨re, P. (2009). The predictive value of numerical magnitude comparison for individual differences in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103, 469–479. Feigenson, L., Carey, S., Spelke, E. (2002). Infants’ discrimination of number vs. continuous extent. Cognitive Psychology, 44, 33–66. Gabriel, F., Cochà ©, F., Szucs, D., Carette, V., Rey, B., Content, A. (2012). Developing children’s understanding of fractions: An intervention study. Mind, Brain, and Education, 6, 137–146. Gabriel, F., Cochà ©, F., Szucs, D., Carette, V., Rey, B., Content, A. (2013). A componential view of children’s difficulties in learning fractions. Frontiers in psychology, 4(715), 1–12. Geary, D. C. (2006). Development of mathematical understanding. In D. Kuhn, R. Siegler, W. Damon, R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 2, Cognition, Perception and Language (6th ed., pp. 777–810). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Inhelder, B., Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. London: Basic Books. Jacob, S. N., Vallentin, D., Nieder, A. (2012). Relating magnitudes: the brain’s code for proportions. Trends in cognitive sciences, 16, 157–166. Jeong, Y., Levine, S. C., Huttenlocher, J. (2007). The development of proportional reasoning: Effect of continuous versus discrete quantities. Journal of Cognition and Development, 8, 237–256. Koechlin, E., Dehaene, S., Mehler, J. (1997). Numerical transformations in five-month-old human infants. Mathematical Cognition, 3, 89–104. Laski, E. V, Siegler, R. S. (in press). Learning from number board games: You learn what you encode. Developmental Psychology. Leslie, A. M., Gelman, R., Gallistel, C. R. (2008). The generative basis of natural number concepts. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 213–218. McCrink, K., Wy

supreme court desicion of hypothetical case :: essays research papers

The appellant, Salim abdul Aziz Rahman, the founder of the group called the Global Islamic Jihad, was convicted under the USA Patriot Act of 2003 for â€Å"furthering the aims of known terrorism organizations by advocating the violence of the United States government that is called for by those organizations.† He was tried and convicted by the Federal District Court, and has challenged the constitutionality of this Act on the grounds that it violates his First Amendment right of Freedom of Speech as protected by the United States Constitution. The United States Patriot Act of 2003 makes it a crime to â€Å"further the aims of known terrorist organizations by advocating the violence against the United States government that is called for by those organizations.† This act was formulated and put into effect after the acts of terrorism in September of 2001.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The record shows that a man identified as the appellant, distributed to the inhabitants of his predominantly Middle-Eastern New York City neighborhood, pamphlets stating â€Å"the American government is controlled by Zionist agents and is using it’s arrogant power to murder believers around the world.† These pamphlets also contained the sentence â€Å"The penalty for murder is death.† These pamphlets were printed and distributed by his organization, Global Islamic Jihad.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At a rally of his organization in April of 2002, Mr. Rahman burned a flag (though protected by Texas v Johnson, 491 US 397, ‘O’Brien 626’), and presented a speech where he called for â€Å"death to any country that supports Zionist aggression against true believers† as well as cataloging â€Å"American crimes against humanity.† In a speech on the day of his arrest in this same Middle-Eastern neighborhood, the appellant catalogued â€Å"America’s crimes against humanity and the believers,† as well as declaring â€Å"We must not sit by idle. We must stand up with all of our strength with our brothers and sisters who struggle against the Zionists and against those who help them with money and weapons. The treacherous Jews and Crusaders must go down. Jihad knows no boundaries and no limitations on its means.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through legal FBI wiretaps, it was found that Mr. Rahman was in direct contact with representatives of the Muslim Brotherhood, a political group both in the United States and abroad. Previously an Egyptian terrorist group whom publicly renounced violence, this group now claims to advocate a â€Å"peaceful transition to a worldwide Islamic state.† However, this group often conveys ideas by known terrorist organizations that it calls â€Å"brothers in the great cause.

Existentialist View Of Human Condition :: essays research papers

Existentialist View of Human Condition Two of the main principles of Existentialist Human Condition are: That man exists and then creates himself and what man chooses for himself he chooses for everyone else as well. Lets examine the first principle: man exists and then defines himself. What it means is that man is created on this earth and is nothing but a body, blood and guts. What he chooses to do and to be is what makes him a man. If a man comes into this world and chooses to steal, cheat, kill and lie then that is what that man has made himself to be. While society may see him as a "evil" person, that is what is right for him. Now on the other hand if a person chooses to be generous, kind, honest and loving, society may see him as a "good" person while it is still right for him. According to the Existentialists, a person is placed on this earth with no predisposed "good" or "evil" values, one man is not created with any more good or evil than the next. By the decisions we make in life we create ourselves. Next the second view, what man chooses for himself he chooses for everyone else. This is a view I really believe in. Everything we do in life effects someone else, whether we no it or not. Every time we drive our car. Every time we eat something, spend money, go for a jog someone else is effected. For an example: a man goes to the store and buys a stereo. First of all the clerk the clerk is effected because they have to check you out, so you have taken some of their time. The store is effected because they are minus one radio from their store. The manufacturer now has to make one more to replace the one that was bought from the store. The manufacturing employees are effected because put the radio together, and so on. On the other hand a man who chooses to steal that same stereo will effect even more people.

Underlying Normal Traits Within Abnormal Personality Disorders

Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Underlying Normal Traits within Abnormal Personality Disorders Student University April 11, 2010 Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Abstract Scholars have argued for decades concerning the fact that there are normal personality traits underlying abnormal personality traits in people who exhibit dysfunctional personalities. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition is the determinative guide on the descriptions of these personality characteristics, and it determined that there were everal models to be considered when looking for a universal clinical definition of abnormal personality. Researchers used either the Big Four, Big Five or other models to describe what an abnormal personality consisted of and how it related to a normal personality as studied. Researchers measured personality differences based on qualitative, quantitative and other key factor diffe rences to determine normal or abnormal functioning personalities. It was difficult to determine one substantive definition, as the traits overlapped from normal to abnormal characteristics noted. Later, the definition of personality dysfunctions included life skills, personal tasks and life goals, and whether the individual was able to function as a member of his society, while meeting the expectations of that society. A person’s maladaptiveness and evolutionary sense were added as part of the definition of whether the personality was normal or abnormal, and whether a person had the skill to be able to manage personal relationships were considered as well in the general definition of abnormal personality. Today, treatment options are expanded from the traditional therapy treatments to include drug therapies, psychodynamic herapy, day hospital intervention, and dialectical behavior therapy. To date, day hospital interventions have proved very successful on non-schizophrenic patients suffering from abnormal personality traits. Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Introduction Scholars have argued for decades concerning the fact that there are normal personality traits underlying abnormal personality traits in people who exhibit dysfunctional personalities. Recently, scholars have begun to make an argument that current category systems of personality isorders (PDs) should be substituted by trait dimensional scheme designations in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Experts are leaning towards using a Big Four model, which are â€Å"essentially maladaptive variants of the Big Five traits of normal personality, minus Openness† (Watson, 1545). In a discussion of this issue by Watson, Clark and Chmielewski, they state that the newly comprised Big Four model excludes odd or eccentric Cluster A PDs, (Watson, 1545) and that their results noted from three studies show a relationship examining the actors of normal and abnormal personalities. Their results established that the Oddity factor was considered more broad than the Cluster A tr aits and more distinct from Openness and other Big Five models, which suggested â€Å"an alternative five factor model of personality pathology (considering only abnormal traits) and an expanded, integrated Big Six taxonomy that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality characteristics† (Watson, 1545). Model Theories The Watson study explains that the Big Four structure was a result of developed hierarchical models that combined general models, like the Big Three and the Big Five models. These former models of personality reviews included multidimensional factors reminiscent of Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS past personality inventories. When the Big Three and Big Five models were formally combined, it was apparent that â€Å"two higher order traits—Neuroticism/Negative Emotionality and Extraversion/Positive Emotionality—are included in both models† (Watson, 1547). Considering these changes, Watson proposes a â€Å"Big Four† theory which does not include Openness, but does include many of the traits of the other theories. Watson reports that their research on the Big Five heory also includes research on a Big Six taxonomy â€Å"that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality dimensions (Watson, 1551). Definitions of Abnormal Personalities Researchers have made recent discoveries that â€Å"abnormal personalities can be modeled as extremes of normal personality variation† (O’Connor & Doyc e, 2001) (Markon, p. 139). Even though researchers agree that it is possible to describe normal and abnormal personalities within the same frameworks, they disagree on the structure of what the framework will encompass. Even abnormal personality traits are seen now as a variant of the extremes that can happen when eviewing normal personalities. One way to make sense of the distinctions between normal and abnormal personalities is to describe personality disorders (PDs) and develop a working definition for them. By defining the traits for PDs, the researcher is able to develop a base for delineating personalities studied. Once normal traits are identified, abnormal traits need to be assessed. This can be done by reviewing the Big Five model of abnormal personalities. This is the juncture that normal and abnormal personalities overlap. Apparently, there are similar modeling structures that can be tilized to describe both normal and abnormal personalities. Some traits are very common R unning Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS between the two models, and others mimic similar personality descriptions. Meta-analytic Investigation Model One cohesive factor that applies to both normal and abnormal personalities is the meta- analytic investigation model. This model was proposed by O’Connor in 2002, and it stated that there were structural relationships between normal and abnormal personalities (Markon, p. 142). The O’Connor study in 2002 reviewed 37 personality and psychopathology inventories to etermine if dimensional structure differences existed between clinical and nonclinical respondents (O’Connor B. P. , 2002). O’Connor found similarity between normal and abnormal populations reviewed and measured similarities â€Å"both in the number of factors that exist in the data matrices and in the factor pattern† (O’Connor B. P. , 2002). The ten abnormal behavior disorders listed by the DSM-IV are listed as: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive–compulsive† (Livesley & Jang, p. 258). Each of these disorders shows traits, and it is he way that professional clinicians are able to make accurate diagnoses of abnormal personality traits of their patients. This listing of traits by the DSM, showed that the distinction between what was considered normal and what was considered abnormal was often defined by distinguishing the â€Å"qualitative distinction between the two† (Livesley & Jang, p. 258). Unfortunately, in truth researchers have come to find out that there are no true separations between normal and abnormal disorders, and they are hard pressed to find the dividing lines between the two entities. O’Connor asked whether the distinction can be made using former Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS models, and what exactly was normal or abnormal personality disorder. When the conceptual distinctions between the two were reviewed, there are several models to note. The most noteworthy working model being that there was â€Å"no evidence of discontinuity in the distributions of 100 traits selected to provide a systematic representation of personality disorder† (Livesley & Jang, p. 259). In other words, there was no concrete evidence that the researchers would consistently find traits that were exclusively common or descriptive of a specific personality disorder. In fact, personality disorders were measured across normal and control groups. The findings were that there were similarities within the disorder traits and that some equaled normal and others disordered personality traits. In this way, the researchers queried whether disorder traits could be seen in normal personalities. The answer was that there were few solid frameworks to make the decision which would provide a definitive answer to the question. In effect, extreme ends of the traits seemed to be deemed disorders, while extreme variations alone may not have been considered enough to state that a personality disorder actually existed. Quantitative Differences in Normal and Abnormal Personalities Quantitative differences exist between the normal and abnormal personality. The differences often mix up and muddle the personality traits and the disorders apparent within them. With personality disorders, often â€Å"it is difficult to see how an extreme score on dimensions such as conscientiousness, extraversion, or agreeableness is necessarily pathological. Researchers agreed that there were to be other additional factors that needed be present to justify the diagnosis (Livesley & Jang, p. 262). That additional trait is inflexibility and subjective Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS distress (Livesley & Jang, p. 259). The character trait of inflexibility is defined as one where the person has extreme traits, but not necessarily only an extreme position noted on any given trait. For example, a person who is extremely open and gregarious, but then is not able to tone down his personality when necessary would be an example of this trait. Continuing with this example, what would make the person who is considered otherwise outgoing and spontaneous a person who is suffering from a personality disorder? Maladaptive Personalities The answer may come from prior work done by researchers who were determining personality and abnormal personality disorders. Extreme actions alone were not enough to say the person operated outside of â€Å"normal† personality parameters. The researchers at the time believed that personality disorders were the result of someone suffering from an abnormal variation of a personality being studied. It was measured in how much the person suffered from the disorder. This is where the theory of maladaptation or dyscontrolled impairment came into play (Widiger & Trull, 1991; Widiger & Sankis, 2000). The reason the researchers sought a generalized definition is that without one, they â€Å"would have to catalogue the various maladaptive manifestations of each trait† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). This was a difficult proposition, since even â€Å"normal† people were prone to exhibit maladaptive traits at some time in their lives. Another problem came with the idea of traits as one certain set of behaviors that were noted on subjects clinically or otherwise. Extreme exhibitions of a trait may show some measureable amount of psychopathology, but were not exclusively indicative of being considered classically maladaptive. In this way, the researchers determined Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS that the â€Å"definition of personality disorder needs to incorporate features of disorder that are separate from, although possibly correlated with, extreme trait variation† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). Harmful Dysfunctional Traits in Personalities These descriptions of personality were necessary because there were more than these factors to consider when determining a personality disorder. In fact, personality was considered to be â€Å"a system of interrelated structures and processes† (Costa & McCrae, 1994; Mischel, 1999; Vernon, 1964) which included a person’ dispositional traits, motives, coping mechanisms, and ability to tame impulses are part of the process of determining normal or abnormal indications of personality. In other words, if these traits were considered â€Å"harmful dysfunctions,† (Wakefield, 1992; Livesley & Jang, p. 263) they consisted of harmful traits that were underlying natural functions. So, the definition of a personality disorder can be considered a harmful dysfunction in the normally adaptive functions of a person’s personality system (Livesley & Jang, p. 263) Another issue within the developing studies of personality disorders was that personality functions were considered to be seen as disturbed in individuals who exhibited personality disorders. Researcher Cantor described a person’s personality as the types of tasks a person sets as personal goals, and they way the person looks at his or her â€Å"self, and life situations, and the strategies used to achieve personal tasks† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). This delineation of personality traits offered a true to form definition of what a personality disorder consisted of for the individual suffering from it. It was considered of a higher order than simply a dysfunction of a personality trait. Here it was described as needing to concentrate on life tasks as the Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS determining factor to determining if an individual had a personality disorder, and was therefore considered abnormal in terms of functioning personality. The researchers assumed that as a person lives his life, he orders his tasks as to what he sets as priorities for completing goals and meeting the needs of his immediate surrounding community and culture. This comes under the order of living in society and meeting the expectations of people who live near the individual, or a way of fitting in within his community. It also had to do with the person’s mean biology, or biological features characteristic of the individual. In fact, these tasks did vary depending on where the person lived and what the person had do to be able to survive in his culture. These may come under the umbrella of life skills, and they are definitely different considering where a person lived or had grown up. For example, a person who grew up in a small native Alaskan out island would have different life skills that ould a person who grew up and lived in a borough of Manhattan, NY. The two personalities of these individuals might be similar, but their life skills would be developed in obviously different ways. The person living in the native island village would have an understanding of the elements and what is necessary for bare-bones survival in possibly e xtreme conditions. While, the person who grew up in the city would have to understand how to be â€Å"street smart† and may need to know how to survive in even a potentially violent atmosphere if the neighborhood suggested those skills were essential to survive on a daily basis. Each individual may otherwise be soft spoken, or be considered similarly warm-hearted or kind. But decidedly, their life skills would separate them and put them a world away from each other in what they knew and needed to depend on to survive in their environment on a daily basis. Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Universal Tasks Underlying Personality Traits The researchers then understood that there would need to be a set of universal tasks that needed to be identified. These universal tasks were considered of â€Å"evolutionary significance† nd featured four universal challenges as set by Plutchik (1980). These were the four ways a person’s identity was developed and they included: the solution to the problems of dominance and submissiveness created by hierarchy that is characteristic of primate social hierarchies; development of a sense of territoriality or belongingness; and solution to the problems of temporality, that is, problems of loss and separation. This allowed the researchers studying personality disorders to come to the conclusion that personality disorders prevented an individual from managing the adaptive answers or solutions hat were considered universally applicable to everyone, or a person’s life tasks. When an individual had a deficit in any of these areas, there was a noted â€Å"harmful dysfunction† and the person was unable to adapt to be able to function in his environment or society. The life tasks then seen as either being fulfilled or being abandoned by the individual, probably because of this identified deficit. Personality disorder was seen as different from other disorders by the fact that these failures â€Å"should be enduring and traceable to adolescence or at least early adulthood and hey should be due to extreme personality variation rather than another pervasive and chronic mental disorder such as a cognitive or schizophrenic disorder† (Livesley & Jang, p. 26 4). Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Evolutionary Sense Within Personality Traits There was talk of the individual not being able to adapt to his environment in an â€Å"evolutionary sense† which spoke to whether the person had garnered enough skills for ensuring adaptive social behavior to allow reproduction and survival (Livesley & Jang, p. 264). This was xplained as stating that the adaptive traits would contribute to the person adapting to his environment and society in general, and the person adapting to his family unit would move the person towards being able to rear children and eventually reproduce to pass down his traits to offspring later on. This is the general definition of people who have self confidence in their dealings with others, and are able to live in harmony in stable relationships, while becoming productive members within their society or community. These can be seen to be part of the ancestral or evolutionary needs of ev ery individual, whether the person had an abnormal ersonality or normal personality. The more common description of an abnormal personality comes from what the common person observes when someone has problems dealing within a relationship. Rutter (1987) stated that personality disorders were characterized by â€Å"persistent, pervasive abnormality in social relationships and social functioning generally† (Rutter, p. 454). Also, Tyrer (2001) stated that â€Å"we do not necessarily need to know everything about someone's personality to recognise the elements that make it disordered† (Tyrer, p. 83). Tyrer states quite honestly that psychiatrists iew these descriptive axioms as something to be deferred, and says â€Å"personality disorder and mental retardation are stigmatic terms that psychiatrists like to avoid† (Tyrer, p. 83). So the question is, how can one determine the underlying normality within the abnormal Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONA LITY DISORDERS personality? For this the clinician and the layperson need review the DSM-III, considered the premier source of personality disorder classification (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). The DSM classifies what is considered normal and abnormal in terms of personality. The professionals in the field disagree to the proposed stereotyping of this group of classifications, on the basis of the fact that such profiling is considered â€Å"quite inappropriate in such a complicated field† (Tyrer, p. 84). In fact, it appears that there are burgeoning alternative and substitute classifications being used for determining personality disorders in surveys, trials, studies and private practice. Most people would be surprised to find out that this topic has been heatedly debated over the past two decades. Many people most likely assume that there is one clinical efinition of what is normal, and what is not normal when it comes to personality disorders. The media plays into this, as well as the television and movie plots. The person seen as abnormal is cloaked in symbolic black, speaks in a raspy voice or has otherwise obvious mentally deviant behaviors that even the least sophisticated person in the audience could confidently label as the â€Å"bad guy. † Personality Disorders Studied Abroad Even the study of personality disorders abroad have led researchers to agree to disagree in the area of determining how to describe profiles for patients with underlying normal traits within heir abnormal personality profiles. In a study performed by McCrae (2001) in The People’s Republic of China, 1,909 psychiatric patients were examined to determine the accuracy of the hypotheses determined from the Interpretive Report of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (McCrae, p. 155). The researchers determined that the PDs were not separate categories that Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS could be determined in a vacuum. They realized that they needed to consider a more comprehensive and forgiving system of personality traits, to be considered an accurate measure f the patient’s personality issues and concerns. The researchers found that the personality traits of the patients did not fit into the DSM-IV defined traits. They did â€Å"draw on the same five underlying personality traits† (McCrae, p. 171), and were considered redundant, but there were several areas of overlap to be considered conclusive. In fact, over 60% of the patients that were being treated for maladaptive personalities were not meeting the criteria defined in the DSM-IV, as relating to any criteria for a PD (McCrae, p. 171). The maladaptive behaviors, the person’s habits and personal attitudes were all measured o find a comprehensive scale for measuring the personality traits of the patients. It was determined that the results were insignificant, and concluded that personality profiles were â€Å"modest predictors of categorical PDs, but they are immensely informative about people† (McCrae, p. 172). Treatment Options for Abnormal Personality Traits But clinicians and psychiatrists are still interested in treating and helping people who exhibit the traits of these personality disorders identified above. They are in disagreement whether there are normal traits that are underlying the abnormal personality traits that deserve to e treated in an effort to offer the patient an opportunity to live a full and productive life. This is a critical option for people who have normal personality traits, but also exhibit the identified borderline abnormal personality traits as well within their psyche. Over a half decade ago, the best treatments were heralded as therapeutic, and they seemed Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS to promise the greatest success overall. But today, there are many alternate treatments available for individuals exhibiting abnormal personality disorders. They include drug therapies, sychodynamic therapy, day hospital intervention, and dialectical behavior therapy (Linehan, 1992, Tyrer, p. 84). Other methods of treatment that carry high success for the patients are the partial hospitalization of patients (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). Bateman & Fonagy compared the effectiveness of treating patients exhibiting borderline personality disorders with partial hospitalization s a standard psychiatric care. They studied thirty-eight patients with borderline personality disorder and offered them individual and group psychoanalytic psychotherapy, for up to 18 months (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). The results were that the patients who had been partially hospitalized did exhibit less problems, with â€Å"An improvement in depressive symptoms, a decrease in suicidal and self-mutilatory acts, reduced inpatient days, and better social and interpersonal function began at 6 months and continued until the end of treatment at 18 months† (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). Their conclusion was that the partial hospitalization was determined as a far superior type of psychiatric care for those patients exhibiting borderline personality disorder. This treatment option was in opposition with the standard treatment options of the herapies listed above. These results were similar in the study by Piper, (1993) where a day treatment program at the University of Alberta Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta was studied. The patients were referred from the day treatment program and walk-in clinic, and utilized participants with â€Å"chronically disturbed non-schizophrenic patients, who usually have aff ective and personality disorders† (Piper, p. 757). The results of the study were that day treatment programs were considered effective for patients with long-term nonschizophrenic disorders. The Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS atients noted significant improvement in â€Å"four of the five areas studied—interpersonal functioning, symptomatology, life satisfaction, and self-esteem—as well as in several of disturbance associated with individual objectives (Piper, p. 762). Reference American Psychiatric Association (1980) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn) (DSM—III). Washington, DC: APA. Bateman, A. & Fonagy, P. (1999). Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1563-1569. Retrieved on April 9, 2010 from http://ajp. sychiatryonline. org/cgi/content/full/156/10/1563? ijkey=bb19a5d 116af525fe927da3b0a0c0250f3d61de3 Costa, P. T. , & McCrae, R. R. (1994). Can personality change? In T. F. Heatherton, & J. L. Weinberger (Eds. ), Can personality change? (pp. 21–40). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Linehan, M. M. (1992) Cognitive Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford Press. Livesley, W. John & Jang, Kerry L.. (2005). Differentiating normal, abnormal, and disordered personality, European Journal of Personality, 19(4), 257-268. Markon, K. E, Krueger, R. F. , & Watson, D. (2005). Delineating the structure of normal and bnormal personality: An integrative hierarchical approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 139–157. EBSCO Database: Academic Search Premier. McCrae, Robert R. , Jian, Yang, et al. (2001). Personality Profiles and the Prediction of Categorical Personality Disorders. Journal of Personality, 69(2), 155-174. Mischel, W. (1999). Personality coherence and dispositions in a Cognitiveà ¢â‚¬â€œAffective Personality System (CAPS) approach. In D. Cervone, & Y. Shoda (Eds. ), The coherence of personality (pp. 37–60). New York: Guilford. O’Connor B. P. (2002). The search for dimensional structure differences between normality and bnormality: A statistical review of published data on personality and psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 83(4), 962–982. Retrieved on April 9, 2010 from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/12374447 O’Connor B. P. & Dyce J. A. (2001) Rigid and extreme: A geometric representation of personality disorders in five-factor model space. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1119–1130. PubMed Database. Piper, W. E. , Rosie, J. S. , Azim, H. F. A, Joyce A. S. (1993). A randomized trial of psychiatric day treatment for patients with affective and personality disorders. Hosp Community Psychiatry, 44, 757–763. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik, & H. Kellerman (Eds. ), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience (pp. 3–33). San Diego, CA: Academic. Rutter, M. (1987). Temperament, personality and personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 443–458. Tyrer, Peter. (2001). Personality disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 81-84. Retrieved on April 9, 2010 from http://bjp. rcpsych. org/cgi/content/full/179/1/81 Watson, David, Clark, Lee Anna, Chmielewski, Michael. (2008). Structures of Personality and Their Relevance to Psychopathology: II. Further Articulation of a Comprehensive Unified Trait Structure. Journal of Personality, 76(6), 1545-1586. EBSCO Database: Academic Search Premier. Vernon, P. E. (1964). Personality assessment: A critical survey. London: Methuen. Wakefield, J. C. (1992). Disorder as harmful dysfunction: A conceptual critique of DSM-III-R’s definition of mental disorder. Psychological Review, 99, 232–247. Widiger, T. A. , & Sankis, L. M. (2000). Adult psychopathology: Issues and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 377–404. Widiger, T. A. , & Trull, T. J. (1991). Diagnosis and clinical assessment. Annual Review of

What Is the International Business Environment?

1What is the international business environment? ?†¢ Globalisation – what is globalisation 0o is the closer integration of the countries and peoples of the world †¦ brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and people across borders. Stiglitz, 2002) 0o Globalisation is being brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and people across borders resulting in the closer integration of the countries and people of the world ? †¢ TNCs – what is TNCs, why TNCs 0o Transnational corporations (TNCs) are incorporated or unincorporated enterprises comprising parent enterprises and their foreign affiliates.A parent enterprise is defined as an enterprise that controls assets of other entities in countries other than its home country, usually by owning a certain equity capital stake. An equity capital stake of 10% or more of the ordinary shares or voting power for an incorporated enterprise, or its equivalent for an unincorporated enterprise, is normally considered as the threshold for the control of assets. In some countries, an equity stake of other than 10% is still used. United Nations Center of Transnational Corporations, 1990) 0o They consider, that there are three important characteristics that distinguish the transnational organization from its multinational, international and global counterparts: 1) It builds and legitimizes multiple diverse internal perspectives. In multinational companies key decisions are as a rule made by a country management group. In global companies managers in worldwide product divisions are typically the most influential.In international companies, functional management groups often dominate. On the contrary, in transnational companies the influence of the three management groups is balanced. (Christopher A. Bartlett, 2003) 0o The impact of TNC activity on the environment is extensive. TNC importance stems from their vast corporate networks and technological resources and the international consequences of their decision-making. More than 50 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions are in the province of TNCs.TNCs invest more than US$225 billion each year outside their home countries, and 95 per cent of these investments come from firms based in industrialized countries. Seventy per cent of world trade involves TNCs, who also hold 90 per cent of all technology and product patents. Every major natural resource extraction and processing industry involves TNCs. The environmental impacts of TNCs extend to the service sector (product advertising) and the financial services sector (investment loans). (Gleckman, 1995)

Locke and Hobbes on Revolution

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and John Locke (1632-1706) belonged to the same generation of philosophers.   However, both philosophers viewed English Revolution differently.   Hobbes had experienced the English Revolution as a time of brutality.   Thence, the philosopher compared the revolution to what he referred to as the â€Å"state of nature† (or, a state of primitiveness). This state was ruthless and uncouth.   Hobbes believed that revolutions were similarly a negative state, and in order to guard itself against the malice of revolutions, society needed a strong king and strict governance, somewhat akin to the Panopticon state of Michel Foucault.   Locke, on the other hand, lauded the concept of revolution as a necessity during times of governmental disturbance.   In other words, the philosopher with a good view of revolution believed in dismantling the government if it does not work (â€Å"Locke and Hobbes†). Sharp (2006) explains the difference between Locke’s and Hobbes’ viewpoints on revolution thus: At least part of the difference between Hobbes and Locke can be attributed to their  historical circumstances.   Hobbes witnessed the English Civil War, which destroyed every  opportunity for happiness for many people.   His all-powerful state must have seemed like the  lesser of two evils, since it would at least be stable and life would not devolve into anarchy.  Ã‚   Locke, however, witnessed the Glorious Revolution, where the government was completely  changed without bloodshed. For him, revolution must not have seemed like such a terrible  thing.   Most likely, both views are too extreme.   Revolution is usually a costly endeavor, since  those in power rarely relinquish it willingly.   However, the possibility or revolution is a key   part of maintaining rights, since an all-powerful government could suppress our rights without  fear of repercussion. Hobbes, being senior to Locke in age and experience, had apparently seen a bloody war that Locke had not been a witness of.   Thus, the views of the philosophers differed with respect to the English Revolution.   Had Locke also lived through the English Civil War, he might have been bitter about the idea of revolution as well.   Nevertheless, it is important to note that both philosophers believed in human rights.   Locke was not a violent agitator.   Furthermore, it is clear that his philosophy on revolution was written with ultimate peace in mind. Locke wrote about â€Å"abuse of power by the government† as a reason for a revolution.   In order to serve justice, he considered it ethical for citizens to fight for their rights, even if they must fight the government for the same reason.   In Locke’s view, â€Å"rebellion† was a necessity at times of governmental corruption and dissidence.   Besides, in the perspective of the philosopher, the people could be trusted to make decisions as regards civil rights.   The important matter to consider remained, however, that people could achieve â€Å"restoration of their rights† via a revolution (Kemerling, 2000). Locke’s philosophy on revolution makes the kinds of allowances for the common people that Hobbes’ philosophy does not allow for.   In the latter’s view, revolutions are bad because they lead to bloodshed.   So therefore, governments should be strong enough to rule the people without letting them express their agitation in any form whatsoever. Locke’s philosophy can debate with Hobbes’ view quite simply by claiming that the victims of bloodshed are usually the common people; and if they are the ones taking responsibility for a revolution, they are the ones also responsible for guarding their safety at all costs during a revolution.   Governments that try to quell public rebellion through military violence are bad in any case.   Hence, the public is right in demolishing such governments.   At the same time, the public must protect itself from the agitation of the government during a revolution. Thus Locke’s philosophy of revolution allows for public liberty unlike Hobbes’ philosophy, which is similar to the Panopticon.   Michel Foucault’s (1995) Panopticism begins with a detailed description of the measures to be taken against a seventeenth century plague. The government was meant to exercise absolute control over all citizens during such time, as spaces were to be partitioned and houses were to be closed off.   Stray animals were to be killed, and human beings were to be advised that they could only leave town if they wanted to be killed too.   Moreover, guards were to be put on duty to keep a constant eye on the people.   Every guard was to be informed that â€Å"if he leaves the street, he will be condemned to death.† The government aimed to create a pure and disciplined community through these orders.   What is more, as Foucault points out, it was a â€Å"political dream† to create such an obedient community, even for a brief period of time.   Such an obedient community happens to be a model for other communities and other times.   This plagued community was further marked by: †¦strict divisions; not laws transgressed, but the penetration of regulation into even the  smallest details of everyday life through the mediation of the complete hierarchy that assured  the capillary functioning of power; not masks that were put on and taken off, but the  assignment to each individual of his ‘true' name, his ‘true' place, his ‘true' body, his ‘true'  disease.   The plague as a form, at once real and imaginary, of disorder had as its medical and  political correlative discipline.   Behind the disciplinary mechanisms can be read the haunting  memory of ‘contagions', of the plague, of rebellions, crimes, vagabondage, desertions, people  who appear and disappear, live and die in disorder. The Panopticon state is the literal embodiment of Hobbes’ philosophy of government.   Totally unlike Locke’s state of freedom, which is equal to democracy in present times, Hobbes’ is a restrictive state with police control at best.   From these two differing philosophies of government arise two dissimilar, defining concepts of revolution.   People through history have found it difficult to believe in both at the same time.   To answer their concerns, both Hobbes and Locke advise their readers and thinkers to use their reason in changing or adopting a form of government (Sharp). References Focault, Michel. (1995). Panopticism. Retrieved 20 May 2007, from c. Kemerling, Garth. (2000). Locke: Social Order. Philosophy Pages. Retrieved 20 May 2007, from http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/4n.htm. Locke and Hobbes, Two Contrasting Views of the English Revolution. Retrieved 20 May 2007, from http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h114_2002/Locke%20and%20Hobbes.htm. Sharp, Robert. (2006, September 5). Hobbes Vs. Locks: A Question of Rights. Retrieved 20 May 2007, from http://philosophy.suite101.com/article.cfm/hobbes_vs__locke.